Sheep, a portion of text from the 4 Books of Husbandry, written in 1578, Barnabe Googe

(note, for some words I switched the "i" and "y" in their modern places, example: instead of writing "ioyntes" I wrote "jointes" though left them in place where it is still easy to read, example: "mornyng")


HEIDO. Next unto the greater sort of cattell, the cheesest place is to be assigned to Sheepe: yea if you consider the greate commoditie and profite, they are to be preferred before them: for as Oxen serve for the tylling of ground, & necessarie use of men, so is to this poore beast ascribed the safegard of the body, for the Sheepe dooth both with his fleese apparayle us, and with his milke, and holesome flesh, nourish us (as the Poet witnesseth.)

Poore beast that for defence of man, at first created wast,
And in thy swelling udder bearst, the juice of daynty tast:
That with thy fleese kept of the cold, that should out limbs assaile
And rather with thy life, then with thy death, dost us anaile.

Of sheepe there are sundry breedes. The ritch and the champion countrey, bredeth a large, and a greate Sheepe: the barraine and the clyffy, a resonable stature: the wylde and the mountaine grounde, a small and weerishe Sheepe. The olde husbandes, did greatly commend the breede of Milet, Appulia, and Calabria, and most of all the breede of Taranto, nect of Parma, and Modena. At this day for the finenesse of their fleese, are most in price the Sheepe of England, of Germainie about the Rhine, and of France. Varro councelleth all such as would bye Ewes, to have their cheese consideration of their age, that they bee neyther to old nor to young, the one of them not yet come to it, the other already past profite: but better is that age, whereof there is some hope, then where there followeth nothyng but a dead carcasse. Your best is therefore to bye them at two yeetes olde, and not to meddle with such as are past three: their age is to be knowen by their teeth, for the Teeth of the olde ones are worne away: next must your looke, that your Ewe have a large body, deepe wolled, and thicke over all the body, specially about the necke, and the head, and good store uppon the belly: for such as were bare necked and bellied, the older husbandes always refused. The neck must be long, the belly large, the legges short, though the Sheepe of England be long legges, the taile in some countrey short, in others very long: for in Arabia some have tayles a cubite long, but woonderfull broade: other, (as both Herdotus, and AElianus affirme) three cubites long, so that the shepheardes are forced to tye them up, for the beyng hurt with trayling upon the ground. In AEgypt, a Rammes Tayle hath ben found to waye twentie pound, and more. The Ramme must have his horned greate, wyneding inward, and bendyng to the face, though in some place they have no hornes at all, and yet no better Rammes: the hornes must rather crookle inward, then growe straight up. In some countries, that are wette, and stormie, Goates and Rammes are to be chosen, that have the greatest & largest hornes, whereby they may defend their heads from storme and tempest: and therefore in cold and stormy countries, the horned Rammes are best: in milde and gentle climets, the pold. Beside, there is this inconvenience, when he knowes hym selfe to be armed, he will alwayes be fighting, and unruly amog his Ewes: and though he be not able to serve the turne hym self, yet will he suffer no other Ramme in the flocke, till hee be ever cloyed and lamed with lechery. The Pollarde on the other side, finding him self unarmed, is milder and quieter by much: wherefore the shepheards, to restraine the rage of the unruely, do use to hang before his hornes, a little boorde with sharpe prickes upwards, which keepes hym from his madnesse, whyle he perceyueth hym selfe to be hurt with his owne blood: others say, that if you pearce his hornes with a Wymble next to the eares where they winde inward, he will leave his braulyng. In some places also the Ewes are horned: but to the Ramme hus eyes must bee browne, his eares great, his brest, shoulder, and buttocks broad, his stones great, his tayle broade, and long: you must looke beside, that his tong be not black, nor pecled, for somonly such will geat blacke and pied Lambes, as Vigil noteth.

And though the Ramme in sight be white as Snowe,
If black within his lawes his tongue be wrought:
Refuse hym quite, least if he leape thy Yowe.
He doo infect thy folde with colour nought.

Bye not your Sheepe but washed and bushorne, that the colour may plainlier appeare, the white colour, as it is the beautifullest so is it the profitablest. In March is your best bying of Sheepe: for the shepheardes like such as have well worne out the Winter. Whosoever will bee a sheepemaister, must regarde the abilitie of his ground: for it is not yenough to have pasture in sommer, but must be provided for in winter : in any wyse, you must have store of pasture, and better it is, and more profitable to the Master, to keep a fewe Sheep well, then a greate number with scarsitie of pasture. Florentinus is of that fancie, that he woulde your number should rather bee odde then even, thinking that number more fortunate, for the healthynesse, and long continuance of the cattell: but these are superstitious toyes, as are a great number of thoers imagined by the faithfulnesse. Be sure every yere once, to make your muster, and supply the places of such as are dead, or sicke, with a newe and sound number, so that the Master, hee not deceived with an olde unprofitable stocke. The hardnesse and crueltie of the colde Winter daoth oftentimes begule the shepheard, and destroyeth many of his flocke: whereof (presumyng of their strength in the ende of the Sommer (he hath made no supply, and therefore Columella is of oppinion, that the age for breede ought not to bee lesse then three yere, nor above eight, both because that neyther of the ages is meete to be kept: and also that whatsoever commeth of an olde stocke, hath lightly a smack of his ould parentes inperfection, and provesth eyther to be barrayne, or weake. The selfe same Columella would have the Ewes to be put to the Ramme, after they had passed two yere olde, and the Ramme to be of five yeere olde, and after seven, to decay. On many places at this day, they suffer both the kindes to breede, from two yeere olde, to niene: but before two yeeres, it is not good to put eyther the Ramme, or the Ewe to breede, although in most places they suffer the Ewes at a year old. The Ramme is put by his purpose, by the Wyckers, or Bulryshes, tyed to the Ewes tayle, but more commodiously, by goyng in severall pastures: howbeit, they are commonly severed, but suffered to goe togeather. The Rammes that you would have to serve your Ewes, must afore the blossomyng, bee kept in good pasture, for two monethes, whereby they may be better be able to doo their buunesse: but in our countrey, we commonly suffer them to feede togeather. To encreasxe their Iust, you geve them in their pasture, the Blades of Onyons, or Knotte grasse: they rather couette the olde Ewes, then the young, because they bee eassyer to bee intreated, and the Rammes them selves in age be the better. By knitting of the right stone, you shall have Ewe Lambes, and of the leaft, Ramme Lambes: also their blossomyng in the Northwind, greateth Ramme Lambes: and in a Southwinde, Ewe Lambes. One Ramme (as Dydimus afirmeth) suffiseth for fiftie Eawes: when they have all conceaved, the Rammes must againe bee banished, for dangering and harming the Ewes. During the tyme of their blossoming, they are to be watered in one place (as both Varro, and Plinie affirme) because the change of water both discoloureth the wool, and dangereth the Lambe. The pollicie of the lacob the Partiarch, in procuring of partie coloured Lambes, is well yenough knowen. The best tyme for blossoming, is from the settyng og the Beareward, to the setting of the Egle: (as Varro and Columella have written) whiche is (as Plinie interprettes it) from the third Ides of May, till the thirteene Kalendes of August, other think it good all the yere long, many prefer the Winter Lambe before those that fall in the spring, as a creature that of all others, best brooketh his Wonter byrth. The thunder, is the Ewes goe alone, makes them cast their Lambes, and therefore it is good to let them goe with company, for avoyding that perrill: they goe with Lambe. I 50 dayes, or five monethes: such as are afterwarde dammed, are feeble and weake, and such were of the olde wrighters called Cordi: for the most part they bring but one Lambe a peece, yet oftentymes two, and if they bee well fedde, sixe at a tyme. It hath been seen in Gelderland, that five Ewes have has in one yeere, five and twentie Lambes: it may seeme paraduenture ta many uncredible, and yet not great marveyle, since they have twice a year most tymes two, and sometime sixe at the time. The shepheard must be as carefull as a midwife in the yeanyng tyme, for this poore creature (though shee bee but a Sheepe) is as much tormented in her delivery, as a [shrewe?], and is oftentymes the more dangerously bered, and payned in her labour, in that she is altogeather without reason: and therefore it behoueth the shepheard to be skillfull in medcenyng of his rattell, and so cumyng and a widwyfe withall, as if neede require, he may helpe his Ewe, what danger soever happen. The Lambe as soon as hee is fallen, must be set on foote, and put to the dammes udder, and oftentimes his mouth held open, the milke must be milked in, that hee may learne to sucke: but before you doo this, you must be sure to milk out the fyrst milke called Colostra, whereof I will speake hereafter: for this, except some quantity be drawen out, doth hurt the Lambe: if the damme dye, if you muste suckle it with a horned: the Lambe will not of hym selfe sucke, he must be put to it, and his Lipped noynted with sweet Butter, and Swynes Grease, and seasoned a little with sweete milke. As soon as they are lambed, they must be shutte up together with thier dammes, wherby both the damme may cheerish them, and they learne to know their dammes. Afterwarde, when they begin to waxe wanton, they must be severed with Hardelles, or (as Varro wryteth) after tenne dayes they must bee tyed to little stakes with some gentle stay, for hurtyng of thier jointes, and waxing leane with to much play. The weaker must be severed from the stronger, for hurtin of them. and in the mornyng betymes, before the flocke goe to pasture, and in the evenying when they be full, the Lambes must be put to their dammes: and when they waxe strong, they must be fedde in the house, with Clover, and sweete grasse, or els with Branne, and Flowre. And when they have gotten greater strength, they must be let out with their dammes about noone, in some sunny and warme Close neare adjoyning, In the meane tyme, you must not deale with milkying of the Ewes, so shall you have them to beare the more wooll, and bryng the more Lambes.

When the Lambes are taken from the dammes, good heede must be had, that they pine not away: and therefore they must be well cherished in their weaning tyme with good pasture, and well kept, both from colde, and extreame heate. Now after that they have forgotten the udder, that they care not for their dams, then shall you let them feede with the flocke: howheir in moste places the Lambes are suffered to feede in the flocke togeather with their dammes, & to suck till harcest tyme, til the dammes them selves doo weane them. Varro would have you not to geld your Lambes under five monethes old, and that in a season neyther too hot, not too colde: but experience teacheth us, that the best gelding is under the damme when they be youngest: for iix the elder (as in all beastes) it is dangerous. Chose that you will keep for Rammes, you must take from such Ewes as use to have two at one tyme.

The best pasture for Sheepe, is the grasse that is turned up with the Plowe, and groweth uppon fallowes: the next is that, that groweth in drie Meddowes: the Marchy ground is to be redused, and that whiche groweth neare unto Lakes, and Fennes: the plaine and the champion feeldes and Downes, are beste for the delicatest and dynest wooled sheepe. To be short, the shorter and finer the grasses, the meeter is it for sheepe: and yet is there no pasture so good, or so fine, but with continuall use, your sheepe will be merry of, except the shepheard remedy this fault with giving them Salt, whiche as a sauce to their foode he must set redy in Sommer when they come from Pasture, in little Troughes of Wood, by licking whereof they geat them an appeite both to their Meate, and their drinke. For where as sheepe waxe soonest fatte with watring (as Aristotle affirmeth) you must iu Sommer everie fifth day let them have Salt, a pecke to every hundred: so shall your sheepe be alwaies healthy, ware fatte, and yeelde you plentie of Milke. Moreover, against the Winter rotte, or hunger roote, you must provide to feede them at home in Cratches. They are best fedde in the warmer countreys, with the leaves and brousinges of Elme, and Ashe, and the Haye that is made after Harvest in the ende of Summer, because it is softest, and therefore sweete[s]t then the other. Whith what heede and carefulness this cattell is to be fed, Virgil declares, who wills a regard to be had of the tymes, both of their watring, and feeding.

When Sommer fayre with Westerne windes dooth call,
Tour lusty flockes, to woods and pasture send
Betymes, when day doth spring and over all,
The gladsome grasse the hoarie dew doth bend.
From thence when as the fourth houre of the day,
With lo fry Sunne dooth make them dry to bee,
To welles or waters deepe goe take the way,
And make them drinke in Troughes of Oken tree.

But in the noone tyme, and the heate of the day, you must drive them to the ballyes, and shades (as he sayth) a little after.

Wheresorever of love the ancient Oken tree,
His broade and mightie branches spreades, or where:
In sacred Groves of Holmes the shadowes bee

After when the heate is past, you must drive them agayne to the water, and so bryng them agayne to feelde.

When Sunne is set, and evening Starre appeeres,
That cooles the ayre, and deawy Moone she cheeres.

Varro affirmeth, that they devided their pasturyng tymes in Puglia, after this maner. First they put them out to pasture betymes in the mornyng, when as the deawy grasse doth farre exceede in pleasantnesse, and sweetenesse: the grasse that beeyng burnt with the heate of the Sunne, is over dry. About the noone againe, till it waxe cooler, they are to be driven under some cold or watry Rockes, and broade shadowed trees, and towarde the evenyng be suffered to feede tyll sunne set, alwayes hauyng regard, that in their drivying, their heada be from the sunne: for no beast is so tender headed. Within a little after the settyng of the sunne, they must be driven to warter, and after suffered to feede agayne, till it bee darke: for then is the pasture sweetest. This order is to be ovserved fro the rising of the seven starres, and the lesser Dogge, till the latter AUqumodtial. The like doth Columella and Plinie teache, that after the fising of the Dogge, the flocke must afore Noone be driven Westwarde, and feede with their face towarde the West, and after Noone they must be brough agayne Eastward. The feeldes whence the corne is newly had of, is good to pasture them for twoo causes, both for that they are well fedde with the leavinges of the sheaves, and that with the trampling of the strawe, and doungyng, they make the ground richer against the next sowing: but our countrey men doo not well like, that Sheepe should feede uppon the eares of Wheate. The padturing of them in the other seasons, as winter, and the spring, differs in this poynt, that they put them not abroade, tyll the sunne have drawen up the deawe, and hurtfull vapours of the ground, and so feed them all the day long, thinking it suddicient to let them drinke at noone: but out husbandes use not to suffer their Sheepe to feede abroade in the Sommer tyme, neyther before the sunne rysyng, not after the settyng, by reason of the deawe beyng more hurtfull in sommer, then in winter. In winter, and the spring tyme, they keep them in the folde, till such tyme as the sunne have drawen up the rymes and hoare frostes from the feeldes: for the frostie Grasse as this tyme of yeere, doo stoppe their heads with Rhume, and fylles their bellyes full of water: and therefore in the4 colde and wette seasons of the yeere, it is yenough to let them drinke once a day.

Moreover the shepheard, as also the keeper of all Cattell, must deale gently, and lovingly with their flocke, and comfortyng, and cheering them with singing, and whystling: for the Arabians (as Alianus writeth) doe finde, that this kind of cattell taketh great delight in musicke, and that it dooeth them as much good as their pasture. Beside, they must be well ware in the driving of them, and rulyng of them, that they guyde them with their voyce, and shakying of their staffe4, not hurtyng, nor hurlyng any thyng at them, nor that they bee any tyme farre of from them, and that they neyther lye, nor fitte: for if they goe not forwarde, they must stande: for it is the Shrpheardes office to stande alwayes as hie as hee can, that hee may plaine and easely descerne, that neyther the flowe, nor the great bellyed in lanyng tyme, nor the quicke, nor the lively, whyle they roame, be severed from their fellowes: and least some theefe, or wyldebeast, beguile the necligent shepheard of his Cattell.

Of theyr pasturyng, I think I have spoken suffieicntly, and therefore I meane nowe to shew you of their houses, or sheepecots, where of there ought to be a speciall regard, that they been conveniently placed, not subject to windes, nor stormes, and that they rather stand toward the East, then toward [the] south, Columella would have them built lowe, and rather long, then brode, that they may be warme in the winter, and that the straightness of the roome hurt not the younf. And beside, hee would habe them stande towarde the Southe: for this beast (though his Garmentes be warme) can not away with cold weather, neyther yet with the greate heate of the sommer. I have seen some sheepe houses so framed, as they have their gates toward the Southe, and toward the East, that they might aunswere to the seasons of the yeere. Columella woulde hatte the house sette towarde the South, and on the Bacside a close Posterue, where they may safely take the ayre. You must looke besides, that where they stande, the grounde bee made fayre and even, some thyng ha?ging, that it may be cleane kept, and that the Urine may bee well boyded away: for the wetnesse herof doth not onely hurt and corrupt their feete, but also spoyleth their Coates, and maketh them rowfe and ilfavored. Let there therefore bee no maysture, but alwayes well strawed with drye Fearne, or strawe, that the Ewes that be with young, may lye the softer, and cleaner. Let their Beddes bee verie cleane, for the cleaner they lye, the better they feede: let them in any wyse bee well fedde: for a small number (as I sayd before) well fed, yeeld more profit to their Maister, then a greate flocke barely kept. Yoy must also have severall partisions to keepe the weaker and the sicke, from the strong and unruely. And thus muche of housed Sheepe, that are every day brought home, but in some places they are kept abroade, farre from either towne, or house. In forestes, and uppon wylde feeldes and Downes, in these places the shepheard carrieth with hym his Hardelles, and his Nettes, and other necessaries to folde his flocke with all. In the desarte feeldes, when as the Winter pastures, and the Soummer pastures, are distant certayne myles of a sunder) as Varro saith) he would have the flockes that wintred in Apulia, to be kept in sommer uppon the Mountains of Krete, and Virgil thus writeth of the shepheardes of Lybia,

What should I here of Lybian shepheardes tell,
Or of their pastures wryt, and dwellinges poore.
That night aay on downes, and desartes dwell, Where wanders still the flocke without the doore.
And on the ground doth lye the shepheard heare,
Whyle he removes with him continually:
His house, and all his houshold goods doth beare,
His staffe, his dogge, and all his armory. 

The like have I my selve seene in Swytherland, and other places of Germany, where the shephearde, lying styll abrode with his flocke, foldes his Sheepe in the night with the Hardels, tying their dogges about them for watchmen: the shephearde hym selfe in a little house uppon Wheeles, sleepes hard by his charge. The Sheepe of Greese, Asia, and Toranto, and those whiche they call covered Sheepe, are commonly used to bge kept in houses, rather than abroade, for the excellencie and dinenesse of their wooll.

EVPHOR. What tymes doe you appoynt for the shearing of your Sheepe.
HEDIO. The times of shearing, are not in all places one, but varry, according to the disposition of the ayre, the cattell, and the countrey, the best way is to have good regarde to the weather, as the Sheepe bee not hurt by shearyng in the colde, nor harmed by forbearyng in the heate. In some places they have two seasons in the yeere for shearing of their Sheepe: the first season for their shearing, is either with the beginyng of May, or els with the endyng of Aprill: the seconde season of their shearing, is about the beginnyng of september. such as foo use to sheare their Sheepe but once in the yeere doo commonly appoynt for their season, the tenth of the moneth of June, about whiche tyme also such as doo sheare twise a yeere, so sheare their Lambes. Three dayes before you sheare them, you must wash them well, and when they be full dry, you may sheare them: the doo not in all places sheare their Sheepe, but in some places (as Plinie sayth) pull them. The old Husbands did account for the best wooll of Puglie, and that whiche in Italy was called the Greeke fleese: the next in goodness they tooke to bee the Wooll if Italy: in the thirde place they esteemed the Milesian sleese: : the Wooll of Pullie is but short, and meete to bee worned onely in ryding Clokes. The wool about Toranto, and Canas, is thought to be passing good: but the best as this day, is the Wool of Englande. The fyner your pasture is, the fyner (as is thought) you shall have your woll. The wooll of suche Sheepe as are slayne by the Woolde, and the garmentes made therof (as Aristotle saith) is apteff to breede Lyse. If you happen in the shearing to clip the skinne, you must foorthwith annoynt it with Tarre: when you shorne them, some thinke it good you amioynt them with the juice of sodden Lupines, Lees of olde Wyne, and the dragges of Oyle made in an oyntment, and after three dayes to washe them (if it be neare you) in the sea, or in the sea bee farre of with rayne water sodden with Salt. And being thus ordered, you shall not have them to lose their wooll all the yeere, but to be healthy, and to carry a deepe and fine fleese, and therefore Vigil biddes you,

Goe Plonge them oft in healthy streames.

There be some agayne, that would have you annoynt them three dayes in yeere, the sayes beyng soon after you have washed them, with Oyle, and Wine mingled together. Against Serpents, that many tymes lie hid under their Cribbes, you must burn Cedar, Galbanum, or womans heare, or Hartes horne: in the ende of Seommer is your ryme for drawyng and severyng of them (as I told before) when you must sell your Sheepe, that through feebleness, they sayle not in the Winter. Beside, killyng on or twoo of them, you must looke well uppon their Livers, and if the Liver bee not founde (for herby is forseene the daunger) then eyther sell them, or fatte them, and kill them: for very hard is it to save them, their Livers beeyng perished. Infected Sheepe, are more subject to skabbes and mangeinesse, their any other cattell, which commeth (as the Poet witnessed)

When coldest stormes doo wette them neare.
And hoary frostes on ground appeare.

Or if you wash not the sweate of the Sommer with Salt water, or otherwise. If when they be shorne, you suffer them to be hurt with brambles or thornes: or if you put them into houses, where either Horses, Mules, or Asses have stand, but specially lacke of good feedyng, whereof procedeth poorenesse, and of poorenes, Skabbes and manginesse. The sheepe that is infected, is thus knowen: if he either scratche, stampe with his foote, or beate him self with his horne, or rubbe him selfe against a tree: whiche perceiving hym so to doo, you shall take hym, and openyng his wool, yoo shall side[could be "find" with typo] the skinne ruffe, and as it were itchy: divers men have divers remedies for this malady, bnt suche as are not at hand to be had, Virgil thines there is no presenter remedie.

Then at the dirst to clyppe away the sore,
For being hidde, it festereth the more.

(continuation on the section on Sheep containes more illnesses and cures before it moves on to Goats)

On Chickens, from the 4 books of husbandy, 1586

As keeping and breeding of Cattell, doth yeeld no final commoditie and gaines to the husbande, so the nourishing & maintenaunce of Poultry, foule, Bees, and Fish (if the countrey be for it) doth commonly arise to his great advauntage, wherby both the revenue is grearly encreased, and the table daily with dainty, and no chargeable dishes furnished. Cages, and houses for Birdes, wherein were kept al maner and sortes of foule, were first devised by M. Lelius Strabo at Brundisium, from which time is was first put in use, to pen uppe such creatures, as naturally were accustomed to flee at their libertie in the aire. At which time also began to be brought in strange & outlandish foules, the keeping and breeding whereof, yeeldeth to the husband both pleasure and profite. We have here brought in PVLLARIVS, CHENOBOSCVS, MELISSEVS, and PISCIN ARIVS, every one of them serverally entrating of such things as belongeth to his charge.

MELISSEVS. I see you have here (PVLLARIVS) great store of foule, and Poultry, and I believe verily, the profite and commoditie of them, wil not quite hald the charges they put you to.
PVLLARIVS. Yes verily they quite your cost, whether you sell them, or keepe them for the kitchin. It is saide that Auidius Lurco made yeerely of his Poultrie and foule five hundred pound.
MELLISSEVS. But I do a great deale better like the common Poultrie, that we keepe about our houses.
PVLLARIVS. We have also of the same here at home with us.
MELLISSEVS. Then let me understand (I pray) in what order you keepe them, for herein you seeme to be most skilfull.
PVLLARIVS. If is meete that every one be skilfull in that trade that he professeth. If you will I will not refuse to shew you that little cunning that I have: so you on the other side vouchsafe to shewe me the ordring of your Bees.
PVLLARIVS. Well then with a good will I declare unto you my knowledge, beginning first with those kinds that are most in use: for amongst all other housholde Poultry, the cheefe place is due to the Cocke and the Henne, that are beside so common, as the poorest widdowe in the country is able to keepe them.

[qualities of a good chicken]

In this Birde there are three points of natural affection cheefely to be woondred at. The first, the great carefulness that they have during the time of their sitting, wherein for the desire of harching their yoong, they seeme to be carelesse of either meate or drinke. Secondly, that they beare such love to them, as they sticke not to hazard their owne lives in the defence of them. And thirdlie, that in the storme, great colde, or sicknesse, they preserve and nourish them under their winges, not making for the while any account of their owne selves. There is herof a most sweet comparison in the Gospell, where in our Saviour CHRIST compareth himselfe to the Henne that gethereth her Chickins under her winges. And therefore, since these are common for every man to have, and that they alwaies feede about the house, I thinke it best to beginne with them, and to tell you which are best to bee likes, which to bee brought up, and which to be fatted. First, the best to be brought for broode, are the dunne, the redde, the yellow, and the blacke, the white are not to be medled with, because they are commonly tender, and prosper not, neither are they besides fruitefull, and are alwaies the fairest marke in a Hawke, or a Bussardes eie. Let therefore your Henne be a good colour, having a large bodie and brest, a great head, with a straight redde and dubble comme, white eares & great, her tallons even. The best kind (as Columella saith) are such as have five clawes, so that they be free from spurres: for such as weare those Cockish weapons, are not good for broode, and disdaine the companie of the Cocke, and lay but seldome, and when they sitte, with their unruely spurres they breake their Egges.
The little Pullets, or Hennes, though the old age, both for their unfruitfulness, and other causes disalowed them, yet in many places they prove to be good, and lay many Egges. In England at this day, they are used as a daintie dish at mens tables.

[Choosing a good cock]

In the choise of your Cockes, you must provide such as will treade lustily, of colours, as I tolde you for the Hennes, and the like number of talons, and like in many other pointes, but of stature they must be hier, carriyng their heads straight up, their Commes must be ruddy and hie, and hanging, nor falling downe, their eyes blacke and sharpe, their Billes short and crooked, their eares greate and white, their wattells oryent, having under them as it were a kind of grayish beard, the Necke feathers of colour divers, either a pale or grayish beard, the Necke feathers of colour divers, either a pale, golden, or a glittering greene, which must hang rufling from his Necke, to his shoulders, their Breastes must be large, their Tailes dubled and flagging, their rumpes and thyes full of feathers, their legges string, wel armed with sharp and deadly Spurres: Their disposition (for you shall not neede to have them great fighters) would be gentle, quicke, and lively, and specially good wakers, and crowers: for it is a Byrde that well aprorcioneth both the night and the day, and (as Prudentius withnesseth) echorteth to repentance. Neither must you on the otherside, habe hom a Craddon, for he must sometimes stand in the defence of his wife and his children, and have stomacke to kill or beate away a snake, or any such hurtful vermine: but if he be to quarrellous, you shave to no rule with him, for fightting and beating his fellowes, not suffering them to treade, though he have more then his handes full him selfe. This mischiefe you may easily prevent, with shackling him with a shooe sole: for although such lustie fighters are bredde up and cherished for the game, yet are they nor to serve the Husbands turne at home. A Cocke framed and proporcioned after this sort, shall have five or sixe Hennes going with him.

[brooding hens]

MELI. I pray you let me understand what time of the yere is best for bringing foorth of Chickins.
PVLLA. In some places, spcially the hottest countries, the Hennes begin to lay in Januarie, in colder countries, either in February, or at the latter end of JanuaryL you must also further their laying, by giving them meates for the purpose, as Barly halfe foode, which maketh both the Egges the fayrer, and causeth them to lay the oftner. Some thinke it good to mingle therewith the leaves or the seedes of Cytisus, which both are thought to bee greatly of force in making them fruiteful. If this be not to be had, you may supply the want with Spery, or (as Cardanus saith) with Hempseede, which will cause them to lay all the Winter. When they lay, you must see that their nestes bee very cleane, and kept still with freshe cleane strawe: for otherwise they will be full of fleaes, and other vermine, which will not suffer the Henne to be quiet, whereby the Egges doe not hatch even together, or many times ware adle and rotten. The Egges that you sette under them, must be newe laide, ho wheit, so they not above tenne daies olde, it maketh no great matter: if you looke not to them, they will straightwaies sitte after their sift laying, which you must not suffer, for the yoong Pullet, are better for laying then sitting: the desire of sitting is restrained, by thrusting a fether through their nose. The old Hennes must rather be suffered to sit, then the yoonger, because of their experience. Herein must you have a speciall regarde to know which be best to sit, for some be better to bring uppe Chickins then to sitte. Others againe will either breake, or eate uppe both their owne Egges, and their fellowes Egges: such you must put aside, and if their Nayles and Billes be sharpe, rather employ them in brooding, then in fitting.

[Egg incubation without a Hen]

Democritus telleth, that Chickins may be brought foorth without setting under the Henne, if so bee the doung of Hennes, sifted verye fine, be put in little bagges, basted about with soft feathers, uppon which the Egges must be laid straight upright, with the sharpe ende upwarde: uppon these againe must the like quantitie of Henne doung be laide, so that they bee of every side closely covered. This done, you must suffer them to lie for the two or three first daies, and after, every daye turne them, taking good heede that you knocke them not one against the other in the turning. After twentie dayes, you shall finde the egges broken: and therefor the twentieth day, plucking away the shels: and taking out the Chickin, you may commit them to the Henne. It is written, that Chickins have been hatched by the continuall warmth of a womans bosome: beside it hath beene seene, that egges being laide in an Oven, or warme place, covered well with Strawe and Chaffe, having a little fire beside, and one turne them continually, have disclosed and broken at their accustomed time. Aristotle writeth, that Egges put in the warm vesselles, or covered with doung, will hatch of themselves.

[# of eggs/times of year and timing for hatching other eggs under hens]

The number of Egges that your Henne shall fitte uppon, some woulde have to be odde, and not alwaies alike, but in January and Fevruarie fifteene, and no more, in March nineteene, and no lesse: which number you shall continue all the Summer, till September, or October, after which time it is to no purpose to breede any longer: for the Chickins, by reason of the cold weather and diseases, never prosper. Yea some be of opinion, that after the tenth, or twelfth of June, you shall never have faire broode, and that the best season for sitting, beginneth at the tenth of March. And herein you must alwaies be sure to have Moone encreasing, from that she be tenne daies olde, till fifteene: for that is the best time to sitte in. And so must you againe dispose the time, as the hatching mall fall out in the encrease of the Moone: for the iust time of hatching, there are sundry opinions. Aristotle writeth, that they are hatched in nineteene daies, Varro (for Chickins) one and twentie daies, or twentie daies, for Peacockes and Geese, seaven and twentie daies, and sometimes more: Duckes in the like space to the Henne, specially if they sit night and day, allowing them one ly the Morning, and the Evening to feede: which times they must necessitie have. If so be you will set under your Henne Peacocks Egges with her owne, you must set her uppon the Peacocks Egges, ten daies before she have her own Egges, whereby they shall be hatched all at once, neither must you set above five Peacockes or Goose Egges under a Henne.

[identifying good eggs]

If you have all Cocke Chickins, you must choose such Egges as be longest and sharpest, as again (for Hennes) the roundest, (as both Plinie and Columella write) though Aristotle seem not of that opinion. To understande which be good Egges, which not, you must (as Varro teacheth) put them in water, and such as be naught, will swim asloft, and the good goe straight to the bottome. Others do hold them up against a Candle, and if they see through them, they iudge them light and naught. You must in no wise shake them, or shogge them, least you breake the strings of life, that are but newly begunne: it hath been seene that by shaking of the Egges, the Chickins have been hatched lame. We may beside perveive whether the Egges will proove well or no, if foure daies after the Henne have sitten, you hold them up in the sunne, or other light, and if you see that they be cleere, cast them away, and put other in their places.

[Brooding Hen]

Against thunder, that many times marreth the Egges, some doe sette about them the Leanes of Branches of Bayes, or Bentes, or Grasse, others (againe) the heades of Garlicke, and nailes of iron. In the great heat of the Sommer, you must nowe and then sprinkle the Egges a little with water, and wet them least by the extreame heate they ware drie and able, speicallie the Egges of Turkeies and Hennes. Whensoever you meane to make cleane their nestes, you must take up the Egges, and lay them tenderly in some little Basket, and so laye them speedily againe in the cleane nest: neere to the place where the Hen sittes, you must sette water, and meate, that they may beeter keepe their Nestes, and that by their long absence the Egges ware not colde. And although the Henne doth alwaies turne her Egges, yet it behooveth you when she is from the nest to turne them softlie with your handes, that by receaving a like warmth, they may the sooner bee readie. And if the have happenned to bruste any of them with her feete, you must presently remoove them. At the nineteenth day, you must look dilligently whether the Chickins doe iobbe the shell with their billes, hearken whether they peepe: for many times by reason of the hardeness of the shell they cannot come foorth, and therefore you must helpe them out with your handes, and put them to the Henne, and this you must doe no longer then three daies: for the egges that after one and twentie daies make no noise, have nothing in them, and therefore you must cast them away, that the Henne loose not her labour. Uppon the twentieth day, if you sturre the egges, you shall here the Chickin, from that time beginne the feathers, the Chicken lying so, as the read
resteth uppon the right foote, and the right wing lieth uppon the head, the yolke vanishing by little and little away. You must not take the chickins away as they be hatcht, but suffer them to remain one whole day with the Henne in the Nest without meate or dinke, till such time as they all hatched. It is woonderfull, and yet the experience seene, that before they be suffered to eate they take no harme, though they fall from a great height.

[Care of Chicks]

The next day, when all the flocke is come foorth, Columella would have you but them under a Sive, and to perfume them with the smoke of peniriall, or to hang them in a basket in the smoke, which preserveth them (as it is thought) from the pippe, which many times destroith the poore Chicken: then must you put them into Coope with the Henne, and feede them at the first with Barly meale, sodden in water, and sprinkled with a little Wine. afterwardes, when they goe abroad, you must feele everie one of them, whether there remaine any of the meate they recieved the day before: for if their croppes be not empty, it betokenth want of digestion, and therefor you must kepe them fasting till all be digested. You must not suffer them to go farre from the Henne, but to keepe them about the coope, and to feed them till they ware strong with brused Barly, and Barly Meale: you must also take good heede, that they be not breathed upon by either Toade, Snake, or Euet, for the aire of such is do pestilent, as it by & by destroieth them al: which mischiefe is avoided by burning of Harts horne, Galb anum, or Womans haire, the smoke of all which preveteth this pestilence. You must sie beside that they lie warme: for they neither can suffer colde, nor too much heat, the feathers about their tailes must be puttled away, least with the hardning of their doung, their passages be stopped, which if it be, you must open dotly with a little quil: you must keepe them with the Henne for a mothes space, and after suffer them to goe at libertie.

[skipped a small section on treating the pip and getting chickens not to eat your grapes]

choice of poultry

As in all other cattell of the Countrey, so in these kindes the best are to be kepte, and the woorst either to bee solde, or to bee killed in the house, And therefore every yeere about the fall of the leade, when they cease to breede, you shall lessen their number, and put away the olde ones. Such as are above three yeeres, and such as are either unfruitfull, or not good bringers up of Chickins, but specially those that eate up either their owne Egges or their fellowes, or such after the Cockishe maner either crowe, or treade: to which number you shall also adde, such as were hatched after the tenth of June, which never proove to bee faire, but the Cocke as long as he is able to treade you may keepe: for you shall seldome meete with a good Cocke.
For fatting, the best those that have the skinnes of their neckes thicke and fattishe. The place where you meane to fat them, must be very warm, and of little light, because as both Varro, and other owne experience sheweth, the light, and their often stirring, keepeth them from being fatte: this must they be kept for five tha twentie daies, wherin they will bee fatte. Let them hand every one in his Basket or Cage by himself, which must have in it two holes, one to thrust out his necke at, the other to cast out his doung, that he may discharge himself, and let them strawed either with straw, or course hay: for the harder they lie, the sooner they fatte. Pull awaye besides their feathers from their heads, their wings, and their tailes, the one for avoiding of lice the other for binding their bodies. Teh meate that you give them, must be Barley meale, which mingled with water, be made in little pellettes, wherewith they will bee fat (as some thinke) in fourteene daies: but see that you give it them but moderately at the first, till they well digest it, after give it them in qualtitie, according as they digest it: and in any wise give them no newe, till you perceive, by feeling of their croppes that was (I think) the cause that old people make choise in their quitrentes of smoke Hennes, as of the best, as it appeereth by old Rentalles.

[housing]

Let the front of your Henne house stande allwaies towardes the East, and to that coast let the doore open. Let the inner roomes bee well

furnished with Loftes and Lathers, and small windowes opening Eastward, at which your Poultry may flee out in the morning, and come into the roust at night. Looke that you make them close at night, and let the windows be well lettiesed for feare of vermine. Let you nestes and lodgings, both for laiyin and brooding, be orderly cast, and against every neste and rousting place, place steppes and boordes to come up by, makeing them as rough as may be, that the Hennes may take good holde when they fell uppe to them, and not by their over smoothnesse, bee forced to flutter and burte their Egges. It shall not bee amisse, if you pargette the house both within and without with good Plaster, whereby neither Weefell, or other hurtfull Vermine may enter in. Boorded floore are not for foule to rouste uppon, which almost all kinde of birdes refuse, because of the hurt that they receive by their doung, which if it cleave to their feete, breedeth the Goute, And therefore to roust upon, you must make them perches, which Columella would, should be make fowersquare: but it is better to have them round, so that they be not too smoothe for them to take hold by. Let the Perches reach from one side of the wall to the other, so as they stand from the floore at a foote in height, and two foote in distance one from the other: and thus have you the fashion of your Henne house.

[the yard]

The Court where they go, must be cleane from doung and durtinesse, not having water in it, saving in one place, and that must be very faire and cleane: for it be pudled, or durtie, it breedeth (as I saide before) the Pippe. To keep their water cleane, you make have faire earthen, or stone vessell, or Troughes of wood, covered in the toppe, in the which there must be several holes so bigge, as the head of the houle may easely enter: for if you should not keepe them thus covered, the Poultry would in their drinking defile and poison it with their doung. Their meat must be given them betimes in the morning for straying abroad, and a little before night, that they may come the timelier to they rest. Those that bee in the Coope, must (as Columella saieth) be fed thrise in the day: the others must be used to an acquantted voice, that they may come at the calling. The number must be well marked: for they soon dereive their keeper. Beside, you must have rounde about by the walles, good plentie of dust, wherein they may bathe and proyne themselves: for as the Swine delighteth to wallowe in durte, so doth this kinde to bathe and tumble in the duste. And this is (I thinke) almost all that is to be saide of Pullein.



notes: The section and added txt in the [ ] is my own
any edits are just to correct typing errors

Turkie Cockes, from the 4 books of husbandry, 1586

Mellissevs. I would faine learne the right ordering of their outlandish Birds, called Ginny Cocks, & Turky Cockes.
Chenoboscvs. This kind of Poultry we have not long had amongst us: for before the yeere of our Lorde. 1530. the were not seene with us, nor I beleeve knowne to the olde wryters. Some have supposed them to be a kinde of the Birdes called in the olde times Meleagrides, because of their ble with coames: but these kindes have no coames, but only wattles. Others againe reckon them for a kind of Peacockes, because they doe in freading time after the same sort, spread and set up their tailes, bragging and vanting them selves: ho wheit they neither resemble these in all points. But because this kind of foule, both for their rarenesse, and also the greatness of their body, is at this daie kept in great flockes, it shall not be much amisse to speake of the: for in daintinesse and goodnesse of meat, the Hennes may compare with either the goose, or the Pehen, and the Cocke farre excell them. The colour of their feathers is for the most parte white, blacke, or pied white and blacke, some blewe and blacke, Their feete are like unto the Peacocks, their tails short, but spread, and borne up after the Peacocked guise, specially when they tread. The heads and the necks of them, are naked without feathers, covered with a wrinckled skinne, in maner of a Cowle, or a Hoode, which hanging over their billes, they draw uppe, or let fall at their pleasures. The Cocke hath the greater wattles under his chinne, and on his breast a tuffe of haire. The colour of that wrinckled skinne about his heade (which hangeth over his bil, and about his neck, all swelling as it were with little blathers) hee changeth from time to time like the Chamalion, to al colours of the Rainbow, sometimes white, sometimes redde, sometimes blewe, sometimes yellow, which colours ever altering, the bird appeereth as it were a myracle of Nature.

The dieting and keeping of them, is almost al one with the Peacocke, saving that this bird ran woorse away with colde, and wet. It is a birde woonderfully given to breeding, every Cocke must as the Peacocke, have foure or five Hennes with him: they are more forward in breeding then the Peacocke, beginning either the first yeere, or at the farthest at two yeere olde: they begin to lay in March, or soner. In hotte countries they lay greate numbers of Egges, if they be continually taken from them, and set under henns, and if so be you take them not away, the begin to sit at the first: for they be of all others most given to sitting, and so much, that if you take away all thier Egges, they will sitte upon a stone, or many times the bare nest. You must therefore restaine them of the device, either by thrusting a fether through their nose (as I before told you) or by wetting their bellies with cold water. You must sette under their Eggs (as I taught you before) in the Peacock: for they have both one time of batching. The keeper must marke the one side of the Egges, and alwaies tourne them, sprinkling them now and then gently with faire water, and take heede the Cocke come not at them, for he will breake them as well as the Peacock: for the Cocke of the kinde, is a frowarde and mischievous Bird. The Chickens being hatched under a Henne, may be kept with the Hennes Chickins, or els verie well alone with the Henne, growing aster a great deale then the Peachicke. You shall feede them in a like sort as you doe the Peacocke, or other Poultry: for they wil eate anything, and delight in Grasse, Weedes, Graveil, and Sande. And because they cannot away with colde, nor wette, you must keep them in Winter, in the warmest and driest places you have. The Pearches whereon they use to sit, must bee hie, but an eight or tenne foot from the ground, neither be they able to flee any great height, and therefore must bee holpen with Lathers, or steppes.

Cattle, from the "Foure Bookes of Husbandry"

The Foure Bookes of Husbandry, by Conrad Heresbach and Barnabe Googe, was published in 1578 (though I also used a later print in an attempt to get better images to work from)

One way to get to know your food, is to know how your food was raised. Well, today I was inspired (it does not take much really) to transcribe a little section on Cattle Husbandry.

(there might be errors as I did not proofread, however the spelling was kept in tact apart from using standard "s" and using "v" instead of "u" where appropriate in most cases... )


Section on Bullocks:

HIP. Go to EVPHORBUS, let us now see you discharge your part, according to your promise, and tell us some parte of your cunning in keeping your cattell: for next to the horse in worthinesse, commeth the Oxe.

EVPHOR Since it is so appointed, I am contented to shewe you what I can say touching my poore skill: and first, you may not suffer the horse to chalenge the cheefe place, when the olde writers and auncient people did alwaies give the garland and chiefe praise to the Oxe, as to a good plowman and faithfull servant: for Hesiodus, a most ancient writer, and the gravest author of our profession affirmeth, that the famely doth consist of the husbande, the wife, an the Oxe. The selfe same by his authoritie both Aristotle seeme to alleage in his Politickes, and in his Economickes, which beast was alwaies of that honor and estimation, that he was condemned in a great penalty, whosoever did kill him, being a fellow, and cheefe helper in our husbandry. By the woorthines of this beast, many great things received thier names of them: for the number, beautie, and fertilitie of Heyfars, did Italy (as they saye) first take hys name, because Hercules pursued the noble Bull called Italus. This is the cheefe companion of man in his labours, and the trustie servant of the goddesse Ceres: in many great things for the roialtie of the Oxe, they derives their names from the oxe, as in calling also the Grape Buneammam: in fine, Jupiter himself thought good to convert into this shape his sweete darling Eurpoa. Moreover, of a rotten Steere are engendered the sweete Bees, the mothers of honey, wherefore they were called of the Greekes (as Varro saith) The same Varro makes foure degrees in their age: the first of Calves, the second of Yeereings, the third Steeres, the fourth Oxen, the Seres: in the first, the Bulcalfe, and the Cowcalfe: the seconde, the Heyfar, and the Steere: in the third and fourth, the Bull, and the Cowe: the barraine Cow he calleth Tauram, the melch Cowe Hordam, from whence came the feasts called Hordicafesta, because the mitchkine were then sacrificed. The goodness of this beast is divers, according to the diversitie of the country: the best were counted in the olde time to be of the breeede of Albania, Campania, and Toseam: at this day we take the best kind to be in Hungary, Burgundy, Frisland, Denmarke, and in England. Of bullocks, some are for the drawght, some for the staul, and some for the payle: to what purpose soever they serve, whether it be for labout, for milcking, or for feeding, it is best alwaies to choose such as are young, of lusty age, rather than those that are olde and barraine, the woordes of couenant in the olde time (as Varro saith) in selling of Bullocks, were these: doo you warrant these Bullockes, or Steeres, that you sell to be sound, of a sound heard, and without fault. The Butchers that bie for slaughter, and such as bie for sacrifices, use no worde of warrantise: and though some bullocks are chosen by their strength, some by the greatness of their body, yet the best commonly have these properties: large, well knit, and sound limmes, a long, a large, and deep sided body, blacke horned, through in the colour there be no great matter, yet some mislike the white for their tendernesse, which when Varro consenteth, who would have them broade forheaded, great eyed and blacke, his eares rough and heary, his chawes to be large and wide, his lippes blackish, his necke well brauned, and thicke, his oe wlappes large, handing downe from his necke to his knees, his shoulders broade, his hide not hard, or stubborne in feeling, his belly deape, his legges well sette, ful of synowes, and straight, rather short then long, the better to sustaine the weight of his body, his knees streight and great, his feete one farre from the other, not broad nor turning in, but easely spreading, the heare of all his bodie thicke and short, his tayle long, and bigge heared. Palladins thinketh the best time for bying of drawght Oxen, to bee in March, when being bare, they cannot easely hide their faults, by the fraude of the Seller, nor by the reason of their weakenesse bee too stubborne to bee handled, It is best to bie them of your neighbour, least the change of the ayre and soile hur them: for the Bullock that is brought up neere home, is better then the stranger, because he is neither troubled with change of the ayre, water, nor pasture: if you can not have them neare you, bye them from some like country, or rather from a harder, and be well assured that you bye them even matches, left in their labor, the stronger spoyle the weaker. Looke besides that they be gentill, skilfull in their labour, fearefull of the goade, and the driver, not breading any water, or bridge: great feeders, but softly, and not overhastily: for such doo best digest their meate.

(Choosing Breeding stock and Breeding)
In choosinf of Bulles, or kine, the very like signes are to be required, that the Bull differeth from the Oxe, in that he hath a more frowning and fierce looke, shorter hornes, greater, and thicker neck so bigge, as it seemes the greatest part of his bodie, his belly something gaunter, and meeter for Bulling of kine. The Bull before he be suffered to goe with the kine, must be well fedde with graffe, chaffe, or hay, and kept severally by himselfe, neyther must he goe to the Cowe, till tenth of June. Varre woulde not suffer him before the rising fo the Lira: but Aristotle woulde have him all the redding time, to go in pasture with the kine. The cowe likewise would be hie of stature, and long bodied, having great udders, broade foreheade, faire hornes, aqnd smooth, and all the other tokens almost that is required in the Bull, specially to be yeong: for when they passe twelve yeeres old, they are not good for breede, but they live many times farre longer if their pasture be good, if they kept from diseases. The olde Cowe giveth more milk then the yoong, according to the countrey people proverbes, old kine, more milk, yoong Hennes more egges. Againe, under three yeeres old, you may not suffer them to go to Bull: if they chaunce to be with Calfe before, you must put the Calfe from them, and milke them for three daies after, least their udders be sore, afterwardes for beare milking. Plinie writeth, that at a yeere old they bee fruitfull, but the breede will be little, as it happeneth in all too timely ingendringes. You must everie yeere in these beastes (as in all other) sort your stocke, that the olde that be barraine, or unmeete for breeding, may be put away, sold, or remouved to the Plowe: for when they be harraine (as Columella saith) they will labour as well as Oxen, by reason they are dried up, but we use commonly to fatte them: their age is known by the knottes and circles of their hornes, which Plinie marketh likewise in Goates, The time for going to Bull, some take to be best in the midst of the spring: Palladius would have it in July, for so in the twelfth month the shal Calve, for so long the goeth with Calfe (as the common people say) a Cowe and a Quene have both one time. In many places they desire to have their Cowes goe to Bull a thirtie or fortie daies after the tenth of June, that they may calve in March, or Aprill: that they would have much milke, so order the matter, as their kine goe to Bull from the spring to winter, whereby they alwaies milke some: at once bulling the conceaveth, if the chaunce to faile, the goeth to Bull again with twentie daies after: some say, if to be the Bull come downe on the left side of the cowe, it will be a Cowe Calfe, if on the right side, a Bull Calfe. The Greekes affirme, that if you will have a bull calfe, you must knitte the right stone of the Bull, and for a Cowe Calfe, the left: Varro saith, that if you put the Cowe to the Bull immediatly after gelding, the conceaveth: Columella affirmeth fiftene kind to be yenough for on Bull. I think he will well yenough serve twentie kine, if he be such a Bull as I described: if you haus good store of pasture, you may let them goe to Bull every yeere, but you must beware your kine be not to fattte, for that will hinder their being with Calfe. The Cowe should when she is reddying, have but shirt pasture, and the Bull his belly full: so shall neither she be too farr, nor he be unlusty. If the cowe will not take the Bull, you must stampe sea Onyons in water, and rubbe her under the taile with it: if the Bull not lusty enough about his businesse, take the peezel of a Stagge, burne it, and make it in pouder, and with a little wine and pouder, bathe his stones, and his peezell withall, which will serve for the like purpose in all other beastes (as Quintillian saith) his courage is also stirred up by the like odours that you speake of for your horse. A Bull ought not to leap the Cowe above twise in a day as some thinke, but we finde by experience, that he may oftner. In some places they name common bulles, and common Boares to every towne: a Bull will ware furious at the sight of any redde thing, as the Elephant, and the Lyon, which cannot in no wyse abide the sight of any white thing. A Cowe will gyve sucke to a straunge Calfe, but let not the calves lie wyth them in the night, for feare of overlaying them. Some weane them at the first, and suckleth them wyth Mylke, or Whay, having a little Branne in it, or flowre, wherewith they bring them uppe, till they bee able to feede. Whether you meane to reare them for breede, labour, or feeding, you must let them want to store of good pasture: for though they bee of never so great a breede, yet if their pasture bee scantie, they will never come to their full growth: for pasture makes the beast (as the Countrey people saye.)

(this section on castration and steers)
Mago, and the olde husbandes, would have you to gelde them while they be verye yoong, which order wee likewise observe in cutting of them: and in the Spring, or at the fall of the leafe, when they be three moneths olde, or threre about, we use to gelde the Bull Calves, and spay the Cowe calves, sowing uppe the wounde, and annoiting it with fresh butter. Columella would not have them cur, but their stones broken by little and little with an instrument, which kinde of gelding he best liketh, because in the little yoong ones, it is done without bleeding: for when they be something growen up, it is better to cut them at two yeere old, then ar a yeere olde, which must be done in the spring, or at the fall of the leafe, the Moon being in the wane: you must tie up the Calfe to a frame, and before you cut him, you must fasten about the synows, whereby the stones bang, a couple of small stickes like a paire of tonges, and taking holde therwith, cut away the stones, so as a little of the upper parts of the may remaine with the foresaid synows: for by this meanes you shall not hazard the beast by overmuch bleeding, neither is his stomacke quite taken away, but hath something of the fatherremaining, and yet looseth his abilities of ingendring. Notwithstanding, if you suffer him immediately uppon thys newe cutting to go to the Cowe, it is certyne hee may get a Calfe, but let him not so doe, for feare of bleeding to death. The wounde must be annoynted with the Ashes of Vines, the Lytharge, and he must not be suffered the first day to drinke, but nourished with a little meat; three daies after he must be dieted, according to his feeblenes, with greene bowes, and sweete grasse cut for him, and looked to, that he drinke not too much: and if you will, you may annoint the sore for three daies with Tarre, and a little Ashes, and Oile, to heale him the sooner, and to keepe the place from flyes. You must use them while they be yet young, to suffer to be handled, and stroked, and tied up to the Manger, that when they should come to be broken, they may be handled with more ease, and lesse danger: but Columella forbiddes you to meddle with the breaking, or labouring of them, before three yeere old, and after fine: for the one is to soone, the other to late. Those that you have taken up wilde, and be well frames, and proporcioned, according to my paterne, you shall handle and breake in this sort. First of all, see that you have a large roome, where the breaker may easely goe up and downe, and out at his pleasure, without any danger. Before the stable, you must have a faire feelde, that the Steeres may have libertie enough, and not be feared, or heltred, with trees, or busshes. In the stable, you must have certaine stalles, or boordes, yoke wise set up, a seven foote from the ground, to which the Steeres may be tied: this done, choose you a faire day for the purpose, and takeing them up, bring them into the stable: and if they be unreasonable wild and curst, let them stand tied a day and a night without any meate, to tame them withall: afterwardes let him that keeps them, offer them a little meate, not sidewaies, or behinde, but before coying them al the while, and speaking gently to them, stroking their backes, and their moosels, sprinckling them with a little sweete wine, taking good heede, that they strike him neither with head, nor with heele: for if he once get that tricke, he will never leave it. This being a little aquainted with him, you shall bubbe his mouth with Salt, and let downe into his throte certaine lumpes of salt tallowe, and powring after a quart of good wine, which will make him in three daies, as good a fellowe as you would withe him to bee. Some use to yoke them together, I let them drawe some light thing, or plowe in a light plowed ground, that their labor hurte not their neckes. The redier may be breaking them, is to yoke them with an olde Oxe, that may easely instruct them: if hee happen to lie downe in the furrow, doe neither beate him, nor feare him, but binde his feete together, and let him lie, that hee may neither sturre, nor feede: which being well punished with hunger, and thirste, will teach him to leave that sullen tricke.

(This section on feeding cattle) 
The feeding of this kinde of cattel is divers, according to the diversitie of Countries: if there bee store of good pasture in the Country, there is not foode to that: in Countries where wanteth pasture, and specially in Winter, hee must bee kept in the Stal, and fed with such fodder as the country yeeldes. Where there are Tares to bee had, it is the best feeding for them: and hay is very good, Chaffe, and Coolestalkes with Chaffe and Hay, and chopt straw sodde together in water, is very good feeding for Winter. In some places, they feede altogether with newe thrashed strawe: in many places they give them Lupines steeped in water, or Chiches, or Peson, mingled with Chaffe: besides the branches and leaves of Vines, the greene branches of Elme, Ashe, Poplar, and Holme, in winter, when other green bowes faile, the Figge Tree will serve, or the brousing of Oakes, and Holly. Oxen are soon fatte in good pasture, and with Wheate, Rapes, Apples, and Radishe: Oxen, or kine, will be passing fatte, where there wanteth pasture, by giving them Meale mixt with Wheate, Chaffe, and Rapes, or Graines. They will mare the sooner fatte, in washing them with warme water, or (as Plinie saith) by cutting their skinnes, and blowing in winde to their bellies with a reede. Sorion seacheth that they will be fatte, if when they are taken from pasture, you give them the first day Colwoortes chopt and steeped in sharpe Vinegar, and afterwardes Chaffe, being well cleaned, and mingled with Wheat branne, for the space of five or six daies, feeding them after with good store of fodder: in Winter you must feede them at the first Cockcrowing, and againe when the daye begins to breake: In Sommer first at the breaking of the daye, then at noone, and at night, in Sommer you must water them twise a day, three houres afore noone, and three houres after: in winter, once a day with warme waster, which is also throught to be good for fruitfulnesse: and therefore the Lakes that are filled with Raine water, are good for them. This kind of cattell desireth not cleane, or faire water, but foule and pudled: yet it were better to give them faire water. Also, you must provide them of warme pastures for the winter, and in sommer, very coole: chiefly Mountaines where they may browse upon the bushes, and picke up a good living among the Weeds: but in lowe groundes and neare the River, Oxen are sooner fatted, and kine give a greater quantitie of Milke.

(this section on housing, leading into medicine)
 In Sommer, they lie abroade all the nightes in many places: yea, in England you shall have them fodred abroad all the Winter. Though they be able to abide colde, yet must you provide them of large stalles, for the succouring of such as be great with Calfe, Your stables, or Oxstals, must stand dry, and be well floored, either with stone, gravell, or sand: the stone will suffer no water to abide upon it, the other wil soone drinke it up and dry it: both sortes must be laied slope, that the water may run away, for rotting the groundsels, and marring their houses. Let them open toward the South, so shall they be the drier, and the warmer: notwithstanding, let your windowes open North and Cast, which being shutte in Winter, and open in Sommer, may give a healthful aire. In fine, as neare as ran be, let the houses be neither too hotte, nor too cold, and as day as may be: columella would have two orehouses, one for the winter, the other for the sommer both uncovered, but well and high walled, for keeping out of wilde beastes. The stals would be eight foot wide, that they may have roome enough to lye in, that the kine great with Calfe hurt not one the other, nor the stronger orewrong the weaker: and that there may be room for their keepers to come about them, and for yoking them Vitruuius would have the Orehouse open towardes the East, and to be neare the fire: for fire is naturally beneficiall to rattell, both for the drying up of the infective dampes, and the keeping of the cattell warme. Besides, by seeing of the fire, they are made gentler, and by the heate thereof, what cold they have taken in the pastures, is expelled, and divers inward diseases rured, The houses must be severed with divers rooms, enclosed and racked, the racke must stand no higher then the Oxe may easily reach, and must have such pertitions, as one beast beguile not the other, whereto they must be well haltred and tied, for hurting one the other: Cato would have the pertitions lettised. Moreover, it is to no purpose to feede them Wel, except you also looke to keeping of them in health, and sound, and therefore whether they be in house, or abroade, you must alwaies have a special regard unto them, and to overlooke them in the night, specially, if there be any kine amongst them with Calfe. And though it be needefull at all times to oversee them, both morening and evening, yet most needefull is it of all other times, to see to them in the spring, when you first put them to pasture: for at that time, by reason of their change of diet, both Oxen, kine, and Nayfarres, are most in danger of sickness: in Winter againe to looke to them, that they be not, for sparing of charges, kept of poore, as they be utterly spoiled. And therefor you must spare no litter, specially when they come from labout, to rubbe them, and fry them, stoking them with your handes, and raising the hide from the fleshe, which will do them great good. In comming from worke, or out of the pasture, you must wash their feete wel with water, before you bring them into the house, that the durt and filth cleaving to them, breede no diseases, nor soften their hoofes. Beware of too much cold, or heat, for too much of either, filleth them with diseases. You must take heede they be not chaste, nor chafed up and downe, specially in hotte weather, for that bringeth them to a feaver, or causeth them to have a flixe. Take heede also, that there come neither Swine, nor Poultry neare their stalles, for both of them with their dounging poisoneth the beast. The dounging of a sicke Swine doth breede the pestilence, or murraine amonst cattell. You must away with all manner of carrions, and bury them well for infecting your cattell.